A practical reference on neuropeptide: what it is, how it behaves, what the literature reports, and where the honest uncertainties sit.
Reviewed 2025-11-28. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Regulatory status differs sharply between jurisdictions. In Russia the peptide is registered as a prescription nasal preparation, while agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration have not approved it for any indication. Products sold elsewhere are typically labeled for laboratory research only, and such labels shift responsibility for safe handling to the purchaser. Because the same name covers pharmaceutical-grade nasal drops and bulk research powder, identity and purity documentation becomes the main practical concern when comparing sources.
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide whose sequence extends the ACTH(4-10) fragment with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline tripeptide. The commonly cited sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, giving a molecular formula near C37H51N9O10S and a molecular weight close to 813.9 g/mol. It belongs to the broader class of synthetic ACTH fragments studied for central nervous system effects rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. In practice the material appears as a lyophilized white powder for laboratory work or as a dilute saline solution in clinical settings.
Development is attributed to researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the early 1980s, building on earlier Soviet work with ACTH fragments. Russian regulatory approval followed for intranasal use, and the compound has remained commercially available there for decades. Most published human data originate from Russian and, later, some Eastern European clinical reports, which are not always accessible in English translation. Outside that region the material is generally handled as a research chemical rather than a licensed medicine.
Published research on this peptide originates mainly from Russian laboratories, and the wider international literature is comparatively thin. Studies have used rodent models of stroke, hypoxia, and memory tasks, with a smaller number of human trials reported. Reported outcomes include changes in attention and memory measures, along with effects on neurotrophic factor expression in some experiments. Small sample sizes, inconsistent dosing protocols, and limited independent replication are widely noted limitations, so the strength of the clinical evidence remains an open question.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, while the terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension was added to improve metabolic stability. Its molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and its monoisotopic mass is approximately 813.9 Da. The compound is classified as a peptide research chemical and as a registered pharmaceutical product in Russia, but it does not hold marketing approval in the European Union or the United States. Naming conventions vary across supplier catalogs.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical class | Synthetic heptapeptide (ACTH fragment analog) | Not a steroid; does not belong to the melanocortin agonist drugs by marketing category |
| Molecular formula | C37H51N9O10S (commonly cited) | Reported values vary slightly with salt and counter-ion content |
| Appearance | White to off-white lyophilized powder | A single batch may appear as a loose cake or fluffy solid |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water and aqueous buffer | Stock solutions are usually prepared in sterile water or saline |
| Typical storage | −20 °C or below, desiccated and protected from light | Seal opened vials promptly to limit moisture uptake |
Russian regulatory authorities approved the peptide for nasal administration, and it remains listed in the national pharmacopoeia under several trade names. Documented indications include acute ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, traumatic brain injury, and certain ophthalmological and neurological conditions. Physicians also prescribe it for cognitive complaints in older patients, although the evidence base for that use is thinner. Outside Russia and a few neighboring states, the substance is not an approved medicine and is sold instead as a research chemical.
Later generations of the molecule include an N-acetylated form and an amidated form, both marketed online alongside the parent peptide. These variants differ in terminal chemistry and stability, and they are frequently discussed in the same breath even though they have not been compared in controlled trials. Supply outside formal healthcare systems comes largely from laboratories that synthesize peptides to order. Purity and identity of these materials vary widely, and no single body oversees the international trade.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in the Soviet Union during the 1980s by researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. It was designed as a truncated analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, retaining only the fragment spanning residues four through ten. Investigators sought a peptide that would preserve the cognitive effects associated with ACTH while eliminating the hormonal stimulation of the adrenal cortex. The compound entered clinical use in Russia during the following decade.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was developed as a fragment analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, modeled specifically on the ACTH(4-10) region. The first four residues reproduce that fragment, while a Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide is appended at the C-terminus. Work on the compound originated in Russia, where it entered clinical use as an intranasal preparation. Its sequence places it among short regulatory peptides studied for effects on the central nervous system rather than on the adrenal axis.
The C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension is not incidental. Proline-rich tails are known to resist several common peptidases, and the published literature attributes the longer half-life of Semax, relative to unmodified ACTH fragments, to this feature. The modification also removes the melanocyte-stimulating and corticosteroidogenic activity that characterizes longer ACTH-derived sequences. Because the molecule is small and hydrophilic, it is typically formulated as an aqueous solution for intranasal or parenteral delivery. Acetylation or amidation at the termini appears in closely related research peptides and shifts the mass by a fixed increment.
Moreover, the nucleus of any atom that has a net nuclear spin and that is bonded to a hydrogen atom could potentially be imaged via heteronuclear magnetization transfer MRI that would image the high-gyromagnetic-ratio hydrogen nucleus instead of the low-gyromagnetic-ratio nucleus that is bonded to the hydrogen atom. In principle, heteronuclear magnetization transfer MRI could be used to detect the presence or absence of specific chemical bonds. Multinuclear imaging is primarily a research technique at present. However, potential applications include functional imaging and imaging of organs poorly seen on 1H MRI (e.g., lungs and bones) or as alternative contrast agents. Inhaled hyperpolarized 3He can be used to image the distribution of air spaces within the lungs. Injectable solutions containing 13C or stabilized bubbles of hyperpolarized 129Xe have been studied as contrast agents for angiography and perfusion imaging. 31P can potentially provide information on bone density and structure, as well as functional imaging of the brain. Multinuclear imaging holds the potential to chart the distribution of lithium in the human brain, this element finding use as an important drug for those with conditions such as bipolar disorder.
The Society had just acquired a scientific collection of diverse microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa) and related materials, known as the American Type Culture Collection. Rogers understood its research significance, and willingly moved the entire collection in a suitcase. Years later colleague John Alford would assert "No facet of Rogers' scientific career is more important to the microbiologist of today than his involvement with the American Type Culture Collection." Two years later the National Academy of Sciences took an interest in administering the collection, and today it remains a vital resource for biological research and medical applications.
For light microscopy, paraffin wax is the most frequently used embedding material. Paraffin is immiscible with water, the main constituent of biological tissue, so it must first be removed in a series of dehydration steps. Samples are transferred through a series of progressively more concentrated ethanol baths, up to 100% ethanol to remove remaining traces of water. Dehydration is followed by a clearing agent (typically xylene although other environmental safe substitutes are in use) which removes the alcohol and is miscible with the wax, finally melted paraffin wax is added to replace the xylene and infiltrate the tissue. In most histology, or histopathology laboratories the dehydration, clearing, and wax infiltration are carried out in tissue processors which automate this process. Once infiltrated in paraffin, tissues are oriented in molds which are filled with wax; once positioned, the wax is cooled, solidifying the block and tissue.
== Cacao == Chocolate is made from cocoa beans, the dried and often fermented seeds of the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao), a small, 4–8 m (13–26 ft) tall evergreen tree native to South America. The most common genotype originated in the Amazon basin, and was gradually transported by humans throughout South and Central America. Early forms of another genotype have also been found in what is now Venezuela. The scientific name, Theobroma, means "food of the gods". The fruit, called a cocoa pod, is ovoid, 15–30 cm (6–12 in) long and 8–10 cm (3–4 in) wide, ripening yellow to orange, and weighing about 500 g (1.1 lb) when ripe. Cacao trees are small, understory trees that need rich, well-drained soils. They naturally grow within 20° of either side of the equator because they need about 2000 mm of rainfall a year, and temperatures in the range of 21–32 °C (70–90 °F). Cacao trees cannot tolerate a temperature lower than 15 °C (59 °F). The genome of the cacao tree was sequenced in 2010. Traditionally, cacao was understood to be divided into three varieties: Criollo, Forastero, and Trinitario. New genetic research has not found a genetic backing for this division, and it has identified eleven genetic clusters.
cis-Urocanic acid (cis-UCA), also known as (Z)-imidazole-4-acrylic acid, is a chemical compound produced by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation of trans-urocanic acid, a metabolite naturally formed in the body from the amino acid histidine. cis-Urocanic acid is suspected of involvement in the development of skin cancer. It acts as an immunosuppressant through action as an agonist of the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor, which it binds to with relatively high affinity (Kd = 4.6 nM), and blocking this receptor has been shown to reduce cis-UCA mediated photocarcinogenesis. However the immunomodulatory effects of cis-UCA are complex and also involve other pathways, and at low levels it shows anti-inflammatory actions and may be protective against UV damage in the cornea and retina. Measuring cis-UCA has been proposed as a sensitive method to detect sub-erythemal response to UVB, and thus a means to assess the UVR protection of suncreams.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Human fat was mentioned in European pharmacopoeias since the 16th century as an important fatty component of quality deemed ointments and other pharmaceuticals in Europe. In old recipes human adipose tissue was mentioned as Pinguedo hominis, or Axungia hominis. The German medicinal Johann Agricola (1496–1570) described the recovery of human fat and its applications. In traditional medicine in Europe, human fat was believed to have a healing magic significance until the 19th century. Many executioners recovered the fat from the bodies of their executants, called "Armsünderfett" or "Armsünderschmalz" (German: fat or grease from poor sinners put to death), and sold it. For some executioners the marketing of human fat was a major source of revenue. The human fat was used to make ointments for treatment of various diseases such as bone pain, toothache and gout. It was also regarded as a panacea for particular diseases associated with cachexia (e.g. tuberculosis). Also an analgesic effect in rheumatoid arthritis was attributed to human fat. From the late 19th century, human fat was produced and offered under the trade name Humanol as a sterile, liquified preparation for injections in Germany. In 1909 it was introduced for surgical treatment of scars, wound disinfection, and wound revisions. In the 1920s it became out of fashion after low cure rates and the incidence of fat embolisms caused by its application.
12 June – The Green Party launches its manifesto, with key points including increasing taxes for the better off, and higher spending on healthcare, housing and climate change. Sky News presenter Beth Rigby presents an election debate from Grimsby Town Hall, where Sunak and Starmer face questions from an audience. Craig Williams, who served as Sunak's Parliamentary Private Secretary, is being investigated by the Gambling Commission after placing a bet on the date of the general election. Williams subsequently describes the bet as a "huge error of judgement". Dr Anne McCloskey, an independent general election candidate for Foyle, is sentenced to 14 days in prison for non-payment of a COVID-19 related fine by Derry Magistrates. Police say they are aware of YouTuber and internet prankster Niko Omilana, who has registered himself as a general election candidate in 11 different constituencies. 13 June – Keir Starmer unveils the Labour Party's general election manifesto. He says that wealth creation is the "number one priority" and that Labour will focus on economic growth. The Green Party is forced to temporarily remove its manifesto from its website after facing criticism for using an image of an ill man to illustrate its policy on HIV. Plaid Cymru launches its 2024 election manifesto, which includes plans for Welsh independence, 500 extra GPs and funding from rail improvements.
Dysphoria and apathy (due to dopamine receptor blockade) Sedation (particularly common with asenapine, clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, chlorpromazine and zotepine) Headaches Dizziness Diarrhea Anxiety Extrapyramidal side effects (particularly common with first-generation antipsychotics), which include: Akathisia, an often distressing sense of inner restlessness. Dystonia, an abnormal muscle contraction Pseudoparkinsonism, symptoms that are similar to what people with Parkinson's disease experience, including tremulousness and drooling Hyperprolactinaemia (rare for those treated with clozapine, quetiapine and aripiprazole), which can cause: Galactorrhoea, the unusual secretion of breast milk. Gynaecomastia, abnormal growth of breast tissue Sexual dysfunction (in both sexes) Osteoporosis Orthostatic hypotension Weight gain (particularly prominent with clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine and zotepine, can be counteracted by starting the drug with metformin) Antipsychotic medication-induced weight gain (AIWG) is a difficult-to-manage condition. In a meta-analysis analyzing data from 9 studies having more than 40,000 patients with AIWG, use of semaglutide was on an average was associated with 7.37kg weight loss with a good reduction in waist circumference. The occurrence of psychiatric adverse events was lower in semaglutide users.
Prior to the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955, little headway was made to initiate this air pollution reform. U.S. cities Chicago and Cincinnati first established smoke ordinances in 1881. In 1904, Philadelphia passed an ordinance limiting the amount of smoke in flues, chimneys, and open spaces. The ordinance imposed a penalty if not all smoke inspections were passed. It was not until 1947 that California authorized the creation of Air Pollution Control Districts in every county of the state.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Chemical === Roentgenium is the ninth member of the 6d series of transition metals. Calculations on its ionization potentials and atomic and ionic radii are similar to that of its lighter homologue gold, thus implying that roentgenium's basic properties will resemble those of the other group 11 elements, copper, silver, and gold; however, it is also predicted to show several differences from its lighter homologues. Roentgenium is predicted to be a noble metal. The standard electrode potential of 1.9 V for the Rg3+/Rg couple is greater than that of 1.5 V for the Au3+/Au couple. Roentgenium's predicted first ionization energy of 1020 kJ/mol almost matches that of the noble gas radon at 1037 kJ/mol. Its predicted second ionization energy, 2070 kJ/mol, is almost the same as that of silver. Based on the most stable oxidation states of the lighter group 11 elements, roentgenium is predicted to show stable +5 and +3 oxidation states, with a less stable +1 state. The +3 state is predicted to be the most stable. Roentgenium(III) is expected to be of comparable reactivity to gold(III), but should be more stable and form a larger variety of compounds. Gold also forms a somewhat stable −1 state due to relativistic effects, and it has been suggested roentgenium may do so as well: nevertheless, the electron affinity of roentgenium is expected to be around 1.6 eV (150 kJ/mol), significantly lower than gold's value of 2.3 eV (220 kJ/mol), so roentgenides may not be stable or even possible.
=== Epilepsy === From the results seen in humans with drugs such as Epidiolex and Sativex in scientific studies and reviews, it could be expected that CBD-based products would be helpful to manage seizures in dogs. However, despite the numerous case reports presented by veterinary neurologists supporting the benefits of CBD as adjunctive therapy, as of December 2020, published controlled studies have not shown a statistically significant decrease in the number of seizures across the groups receiving CBD.
=== Field survey === Surveying helps determine accurately the terrestrial or three-dimensional space position of points and the distances and angles between them using leveling instruments such as theodolites, dumpy levels and clinometers. GPS and other global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) are also used. Work on one of the first topographic maps was begun in France by Giovanni Domenico Cassini, the great Italian astronomer. Even though remote sensing has greatly sped up the process of gathering information, and has allowed greater accuracy control over long distances, the direct survey still provides the basic control points and framework for all topographic work, whether manual or GIS-based. In areas where there has been an extensive direct survey and mapping program (most of Europe and the Continental U.S., for example), the compiled data forms the basis of basic digital elevation datasets such as USGS DEM data. This data must often be "cleaned" to eliminate discrepancies between surveys, but it still forms a valuable set of information for large-scale analysis. The original American topographic surveys (or the British "Ordnance" surveys) involved not only the recording of relief, but the identification of landmark features and vegetative land cover.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a short synthetic peptide built from seven amino acids: methionine, glutamic acid, histidine, phenylalanine and three prolines. The sequence derives from the 4-10 fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone with an added proline-glycine-proline tail. No plant or animal extract is involved; the material is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis.
It was developed in the Soviet Union during the early 1980s by groups at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. Russian approval for intranasal use followed, and it has been marketed there since. Western laboratories encountered it mainly through translated literature and, later, through online research-chemical trade.
It holds a Russian registration as a prescription nasal product but has no approval from the European Medicines Agency or the United States Food and Drug Administration. Buyers outside Russia usually receive material sold strictly for laboratory research. That distinction matters because research-grade and pharmaceutical-grade products carry different documentation and testing expectations.
It is a synthetic peptide of seven amino acids. Its backbone corresponds to a fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone extended at the carboxyl end. The material is distributed as a lyophilized solid for laboratory use.