A practical reference on ACTH fragment: what it is, how it behaves, what the literature reports, and where the honest uncertainties sit.
This page was last updated on 2025-07-23 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Russian regulatory authorities approved the peptide for nasal administration, and it remains listed in the national pharmacopoeia under several trade names. Documented indications include acute ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, traumatic brain injury, and certain ophthalmological and neurological conditions. Physicians also prescribe it for cognitive complaints in older patients, although the evidence base for that use is thinner. Outside Russia and a few neighboring states, the substance is not an approved medicine and is sold instead as a research chemical.
Later generations of the molecule include an N-acetylated form and an amidated form, both marketed online alongside the parent peptide. These variants differ in terminal chemistry and stability, and they are frequently discussed in the same breath even though they have not been compared in controlled trials. Supply outside formal healthcare systems comes largely from laboratories that synthesize peptides to order. Purity and identity of these materials vary widely, and no single body oversees the international trade.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, while the terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension was added to improve metabolic stability. Its molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and its monoisotopic mass is approximately 813.9 Da. The compound is classified as a peptide research chemical and as a registered pharmaceutical product in Russia, but it does not hold marketing approval in the European Union or the United States. Naming conventions vary across supplier catalogs.
Development of the compound took place in the Soviet Union during the 1980s, largely through peptide research groups affiliated with the Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute and Moscow State University. Investigators screened fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone for activity on the central nervous system while attempting to separate cognitive effects from hormonal ones. The shortened sequence was selected because it retained behavioral activity in animal models without stimulating corticosteroid release. Early publications described the molecule as an ACTH(4-10) analog.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular class | Synthetic heptapeptide | Analog of an ACTH fragment |
| Amino acid length | Seven residues | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro |
| Origin | Moscow, 1980s | Institute of Molecular Genetics |
| Approved regions | Russia and some neighboring states | Not cleared in Western markets |
| Common trade names | Multiple national brands | Sold as a nasal formulation |
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide whose sequence extends the ACTH(4-10) fragment with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline tripeptide. The commonly cited sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, giving a molecular formula near C37H51N9O10S and a molecular weight close to 813.9 g/mol. It belongs to the broader class of synthetic ACTH fragments studied for central nervous system effects rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. In practice the material appears as a lyophilized white powder for laboratory work or as a dilute saline solution in clinical settings.
Development is attributed to researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the early 1980s, building on earlier Soviet work with ACTH fragments. Russian regulatory approval followed for intranasal use, and the compound has remained commercially available there for decades. Most published human data originate from Russian and, later, some Eastern European clinical reports, which are not always accessible in English translation. Outside that region the material is generally handled as a research chemical rather than a licensed medicine.
Regulatory status differs sharply between jurisdictions. In Russia the peptide is registered as a prescription nasal preparation, while agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration have not approved it for any indication. Products sold elsewhere are typically labeled for laboratory research only, and such labels shift responsibility for safe handling to the purchaser. Because the same name covers pharmaceutical-grade nasal drops and bulk research powder, identity and purity documentation becomes the main practical concern when comparing sources.
当时的短肽研究普遍关注能否穿越血脑屏障、在低剂量下产生中枢效应，Semax 属于这一路线。鼻内给药是其主要使用方式，俄语文献报道的适应症涵盖缺血性卒中、短暂性脑缺血发作、认知功能减退以及视神经病变。这些研究大多发表在当地期刊上，样本规模与终点设置同西方试验惯例存在差异，国际同行对其临床证据的强度看法不一。
各国监管态度分化明显。俄罗斯按处方药管理，部分东欧国家留有使用记录；欧盟与美国未批准其作为药物上市，市面流通品通常标注为研究用化学品。身份差异意味着标示含量、纯度与无菌性缺少统一核查。体育领域还牵涉反兴奋剂名录，跨境携带则受目的地药品法规约束。
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It corresponds to the ACTH(4-7) fragment extended at the C-terminus by a Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide, an addition intended to slow enzymatic breakdown. The molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and the molecular mass is approximately 814 daltons. In the literature it is often described as an ACTH(4-10) analog, although that label reflects a naming convention as much as a precise structural relationship. The compound was developed in Russia and remains most closely associated with that research tradition.
Laboratory descriptions of the material are consistent across suppliers. It appears as a white to off-white lyophilized powder that dissolves readily in water and in polar organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide. Aqueous solutions are clear and colorless at low concentrations. Because the peptide contains methionine, oxidation at the sulfur atom is a recognized degradation pathway, and handling notes usually call for protected, desiccated storage. Reported purity for research-grade lots is generally above 95 percent as measured by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography.
The compound is registered in Russia as a pharmaceutical product, most commonly formulated as a nasal solution, and has been used in that setting since the 1990s. Outside that jurisdiction it is generally handled as a research chemical rather than an approved medicine. Regulatory status therefore differs sharply between countries, and material sold internationally may not correspond to the Russian pharmaceutical formulation. Documentation with commercial samples is typically limited to a certificate of analysis covering purity and identity, not clinical status or local legal classification.
=== Military restructuring === Spain's international wars in the second half of the 18th century evidenced the empire's difficulties in reinforcing its colonial possessions and provide them with economic aid. This led to an increased local participation in the financing of the defense and an increased participation in the militias by the locally-born. Such development was at odds with the ideals of the centralized absolute monarchy. The Spanish did also formal concessions to strengthen the defense: In Chiloé Archipelago Spanish authorities promised freedom from the encomienda to those indigenous locals who settled near the new stronghold of Ancud (founded in 1768) and contributed to its defense. The increased local organization of the defenses would ultimately undermine metropolitan authority and bolster the independence movement.
The glial protein most severely affected is FABP5. Another study showed that 100% of hippocampal astrocytes that contain FABP7 also contain FABP5. These data suggest that FABP7+/Gomori-positive astrocytes may play a role in Alzheimer's disease. An altered glial function in this region could compromise the function of dentate gyrus neurons and also the function of axons that terminate in the dentate gyrus. Many such axons originate in the lateral entorhinal cortex, which is the first brain region to show degeneration in Alzheimer's disease. Astrocyte pathology in the hippocampus thus might make a contribution to the pathology of Alzheimer's disease.
Both TATP and DADP are liable to loss of mass via sublimation. DADP has lower molecular weight and higher vapor pressure; this results in DADP being more prone to sublimation than TATP. This can lead to dangerous crystal growth when the vapors deposit if the crystals have been stored in a container with a threaded lid. This process of repeated sublimation and deposition also results in a change in crystal size via Ostwald ripening. Several methods can be used for trace analysis of TATP, including gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS), and HPLC with post-column derivatization. Acetone peroxide is soluble in toluene, chloroform, acetone, dichloromethane and methanol. Recrystalization of primary explosives may yield large crystals that detonate spontaneously due to internal strain.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Post-hoc analysis and proton inventory === It is necessary to conduct a post-hoc analysis to determine the buffer or solvent-independent enthalpy from the experimental thermodynamics. The collected experimental data reflects not only the binding thermodynamics of the interaction of interest, but any contributing competing equilibria associated to it. A post-hoc analysis can be performed to determine the buffer or solvent-independent enthalpy from the experimental thermodynamics, by simply going through the process of Hess' law. Below example shows a simple interaction between a metal ion (M) and a ligand (L). B represents the buffer used for this interaction and
=== Stagg Damages === Stagg sued the police for damages totalling £1 million following the fourteen months he spent in custody. He has co-written and published two books about the case: Who Really Killed Rachel? (with novelist David Kessler) and, more recently, Pariah (with journalist Ted Hynds), the latter being published on the same day as the real culprit's appearance in court to enter a plea. In January 2007, the Home Office confirmed that Stagg would receive compensation for wrongful prosecution, with the amount to be set by an independent assessor. On 13 August 2008, it was announced that the compensation was £706,000. In December 2008, Colin Stagg finally received a public apology from the Metropolitan Police for their previous involvement and prosecution of him in regard to the Nickell murder investigation. He also received an apology from Robert Napper, delivered via his QC.
== Career == Little has been in the transport industry for nearly all his business life, first as an employee at Mayne Nickless, where he progressed to become national operations manager of the Seapak Transport Services division, and then at Peko-Wallsend as a consultant where he assessed the desirability of purchasing the Toll business and then led the takeover which went on to become a prominent Australian transport services provider.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Resurgence == By the late 2010s, many observers, including The New York Times, pointed to Detroit's economic and cultural resurgence. This resurgence was primarily due to private and public investment revitalizing the city's social and economic dynamics. Detroit has achieved a renewed sense of interest through reinvestment and revamped social policies. It serves as a model for other areas to learn how to re-energize their urban centers. In 2024, the United States Census Bureau reported that Detroit experienced a slight population increase in its 2023 estimates, marking the city's first recorded growth since 1957. Evidence of Detroit's resurgence is most readily found in the Midtown Area and the Central Business District, which have attracted a number of high-profile investors. Most notably, Dan Gilbert has heavily invested in the acquisition and revitalization of a number of historic buildings in the Downtown area. A primary focus of private real estate investment has been to position Detroit's Central Business District as an attractive site for the investment of technology companies such as Amazon, Google, and Microsoft. Approaches to the private investment of Midtown, however, have prioritized re-establishing Midtown as the cultural and commercial center of the city. Midtown Cultural Connection's DIA Plaza Project, for instance, aims to unify the city's cultural district—which includes the Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit Public Library, the Charles H.
Supportive measures may be instituted prior to surgery. These measures include fluid resuscitation. Intravenous opioids can be used for pain control. Antibiotics are often not needed. In cases of severe inflammation, shock, or if the person has higher risk for general anesthesia (required for cholecystectomy), an interventional radiologist may insert a percutaneous drainage catheter into the gallbladder (percutaneous cholecystostomy tube) and treat the person with antibiotics until the acute inflammation resolves. A cholecystectomy may then be warranted if the person's condition improves. Homeopathic approaches to treating cholecystitis have not been validated by evidence and should not be used in place of surgery.
The 5'-terminal 5'-hydroxy group is protected with DMT group; The internucleosidic phosphate or phosphorothioate moieties are protected with 2-cyanoethyl groups; The exocyclic amino groups in all nucleic bases except for T and U are protected with acyl protecting groups. To furnish a functional oligonucleotide, all the protecting groups have to be removed. The N-acyl base protection and the 2-cyanoethyl phosphate protection may be, and is often removed simultaneously by treatment with inorganic bases or amines. However, the applicability of this method is limited by the fact that the cleavage of 2-cyanoethyl phosphate protection gives rise to acrylonitrile as a side product. Under the strong basic conditions required for the removal of N-acyl protection, acrylonitrile is capable of alkylation of nucleic bases, primarily, at the N3-position of thymine and uracil residues to give the respective N3-(2-cyanoethyl) adducts via Michael reaction. The formation of these side products may be avoided by treating the solid support-bound oligonucleotides with solutions of bases in an organic solvent, for instance, with 50% triethylamine in acetonitrile or 10% diethylamine in acetonitrile. This treatment is strongly recommended for medium- and large scale preparations and is optional for syntheses on small scale where the concentration of acrylonitrile generated in the deprotection mixture is low. Regardless of whether the phosphate protecting groups were removed first, the solid support-bound oligonucleotides are deprotected using one of the two general approaches.
The flexible finger bones of bats have a flattened cross-section and become less mineralised towards the tips. The elongation of bat digits, a key feature required for wing development, is due to the upregulation of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs). During embryonic development, the gene controlling BMP signalling, BMP-2, is subjected to increased expression in bat forelimbs – resulting in the extension of the manual digits. This crucial genetic alteration helps create the specialised limbs required for powered flight. The relative proportion of extant bat forelimb digits compared with those of Eocene fossil bats have no significant differences, suggesting that bat wing morphology has been conserved for over fifty million years. During flight, the bones undergo bending and shearing stress; the former being less than in terrestrial mammals, and the latter being greater. The wing bones of bats are less resistant to breaking than those of birds. As in other mammals, and unlike in birds, the radius is the main component of the forearm. Bats have five elongated digits, which all radiate around the wrist. The thumb points forward and supports the leading edge of the wing, and the other digits support the tension held in the wing membrane. The second and third digits go along the wingtip, allowing the wing to be pulled forward against aerodynamic drag without having to be thick, as in pterosaur wings. The fourth and fifth digits go from the wrist to the trailing edge and repel the bending force caused by air pushing up against the stiff membrane.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It originated at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the 1980s. The work was carried out by a Russian research group that specialized in peptide neuropharmacology.
It is registered as a medicine in Russia and has been used clinically there for decades. No regulatory agency in Western Europe or North America has approved it for any indication.
Semax corresponds to the four-to-ten fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Because it omits the first three residues, it lacks the adrenal-stimulating action of the full hormone.
It is a synthetic peptide of seven amino acids. Its backbone corresponds to a fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone extended at the carboxyl end. The material is distributed as a lyophilized solid for laboratory use.